Exposure to heavy metals, antioxidant status, and the interaction of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the genes CAT rs7943316, GSTP1 rs1695, as well as GSTM1 and GSTT1 genes, among workers in occupational settings.

Individuals working in diverse fields are consistently exposed to work-related pollutants that can impact their overall health. The current study investigated the presence of pollutants in seven different occupational groups and their impact on human health. Biochemical and genetic approaches were employed. Heavy metals were determined by ICP-MS technique. Oxidative stress biochemical markers and molecular analysis of the glutathione transferases gene SNPs (GSTT1, GSTM1, GSTP1), catalase (CAT, rs7943316), and superoxide dismutase (SOD, rs17880487) was carried out. The results revealed a significantly higher quantity of Cd among five occupational groups. Catalase, malonaldehyde, and glutathione was significantly dysregulated. Molecular analysis of the gene SNPs suggests a probable relationship between the antioxidants and the phenotypic expression of the CAT, GSTP1, GSTT1, and GSTM1 SNPs. It is concluded that chronic exposure to occupational contaminants like Cd affects human health through oxidative stress in association with some of their gene SNPs.

Cadmium-induced Carcinogenesis in Respiratory Organs and the Prostate: Insights from Three Perspectives on Toxicogenomic Approach.

Cadmium (Cd) exposure primarily occurs through inhalation, either by smoking or occupational exposure to contaminated air. Upon inhalation, Cd ultimately reaches the prostate through the bloodstream. In this review, we investigate the carcinogenic potential of Cd in both respiratory organs and the prostate. Specifically, this review examines cellular metabolism, comprehensive toxicity, and carcinogenic mechanisms by exploring gene ontology, biological networks, and adverse outcome pathways. In the respiratory organs, Cd induces lung cancer by altering the expression of IL1B and FGF2, causing DNA damage, reducing cell junction integrity, and promoting apoptosis. In the prostate, Cd induces prostate cancer by modifying the expression of EDN1 and HMOX1, leading to abnormal protein activities and maturation, suppressing tumor suppressors, and inducing apoptosis. Collectively, this review provides a comprehensive understanding of the carcinogenic mechanisms of Cd in two different organs by adopting toxicogenomic approaches. These insights can serve as a foundation for further research on cadmium-induced cancer, contributing to the establishment of future cancer prevention strategies.

Evaluation of cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of a novel oxovanadium complex with orotate.

The development of new drugs based on metal complexes requires a detailed analysis of their biological endpoints. In this study, we report the genotoxic profile and influence on cell proliferation and death of the oxovanadium(IV) complex with orotic acid ([VO(C5H4N2O4)2], VO(oro)). Human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2) were the most sensitive tumor cells to VO(oro), which interfered with the integrity of cell membranes and proliferative capacity in a dose-dependent manner, inducing cell death by apoptosis. Regarding genotoxicity, VO(oro) did not induce considerable levels of DNA damage in HepG2 cells (comet test) and gene mutations (Ames test). However, it caused a statistically significant increase in the frequency of micronuclei at the highest concentration tested (12.5 µmol.L-1), indicating aneuploidy and clastogenicity. The data presented here provide information on various biological aspects of the VO(oro) complex, which may allow the elucidation of its mechanism of action as a possible therapeutic agent.

A Genomic Approach to Identify the Different between Acute and Chronic UVB Exposures in the Causation of Inflammation and Cancer.

As a principal component of solar radiation, ultraviolet B (UVB) exposure can be harmful depending on the duration and intensity because the human body can easily be exposed to it. Many studies have demonstrated that UVB causes a series of inflammatory and other skin disorders. UVB has been classified as the Group 1 carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Diverse studies have focused on UVB exposure but the complex perspective of acute and chronic UVB exposure is still lacking. This review presents the differences between acute and chronic exposure to UVB and summarizes public information in terms of toxicogenomic characteristics. We also demonstrated the differences between adverse effects of acute and chronic UVB exposure on the skin system. From the published literatures, we compared the biological pathways predict of the adverse effects caused by each UVB exposure type. Furthermore, our review not only clarifies the differences in each UVB exposure network but also suggests major hub genes related to cellular mechanisms and diseases that are thought to be affected by acute and chronic UVB exposure.

Genomic Approach to the Assessment of Adverse Effects of Particulate Matters on Skin Cancer and Other Disorders and Underlying Molecular Mechanisms.

Air pollutants are in the spotlight because the human body can easily be exposed to them. Among air pollutants, the particulate matter (PM) represents one of the most serious toxicants that can enter the human body through various exposure routes. PMs have various adverse effects and classified as severe carcinogen by International Agency for Research on Cancer. Their physical and chemical characteristics are distinguished by their size. In this review, we summarized the published information on the physicochemical characteristics and adverse effects of PMs on the skin, including carcinogenicity. Through comparisons of biological networks constructed from relationships discussed in the previous scientific publications, we show it is possible to predict skin cancers and other disorders from particle-size-specific signaling alterations of PM-responsive genes. Our review not only helps to grasp the biological association between ambient PMs and skin diseases including cancer, but also provides new approaches to interpret chemical-gene-disease associations regarding the adverse effects of these heterogeneous particles.

Air, Land, and Sea: Gene-Environment Interaction in Chronic Disease.

Each of us reflects a unique convergence of DNA and the environment. Over the past 2 decades, huge biobanks linked to electronic medical records have positioned the clinical and scientific communities to understand the complex genetic architecture underlying many common diseases. Although these efforts are producing increasingly accurate gene-based risk prediction algorithms for use in routine clinical care, the algorithms often fail to include environmental factors. This review explores the concept of heritability (genetic vs nongenetic determinants of disease), with emphasis on the role of environmental factors as risk determinants for common complex diseases influenced by air and water quality. Efforts to define patient exposure to specific toxicants in practice-based data sets will deepen our understanding of diseases with low heritability, and improved land management practices will reduce the burden of disease.

Prenatal exposure to pesticides and risk of preeclampsia among pregnant women: Results from the ELFE cohort.

BACKGROUND: Preeclampsia is a pregnancy-specific syndrome caused by abnormal placentation. Although environmental chemicals, including some pesticides, are suspected of impairing placentation and promoting preeclampsia, its relationship with preeclampsia has been insufficiently explored. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to investigate the relation between non-occupational exposure to pesticides during pregnancy and the risk of preeclampsia. METHODS: The study cohort comprised 195 women with and 17,181 without preeclampsia from the ELFE birth cohort. We used toxicogenomic approaches to select 41 pesticides of interest for their possible influence on preeclampsia. We assessed household pesticide use (self-reported data), environmental exposure to agricultural pesticides (geographic information systems), and dietary exposure (food-frequency questionnaire with data from monitoring pesticide residues in food and water). Dietary exposures to pesticides were grouped into clusters of similar exposures to resolve collinearity issues. For each exposure source, pesticides were mutually adjusted, and odds ratios estimated with logistic regression models. RESULTS: The quantity of prochloraz applied within a kilometer of the women's homes was higher in women with than without preeclampsia (fourth quartile vs. others; adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.54; 95%CI: 1.02, 2.35), especially when preeclampsia was diagnosed before 34 weeks of gestation (aOR = 2.25; 95%CI: 1.01, 5.06). The reverse was observed with nearby cypermethrin application (aOR = 0.59, 95%CI: 0.36, 0.96). In sensitivity analyses, women with preeclampsia receiving antihypertensive treatment had a significantly higher probability of using herbicides at home during pregnancy than women without preeclampsia (aOR = 2.20; 95%CI: 1.23, 3.93). No statistically significant association was found between dietary exposure to pesticide residues and preeclampsia. DISCUSSION: While the most of the associations examined remained statistically non-significant, our results suggest the possible influence on preeclampsia of residential exposures to prochloraz and some herbicides. These estimations are supported by toxicological and mechanistic data.

Antisense Oligonucleotide (AS-ODN) Technology: Principle, Mechanism and Challenges.

Recently, there is a hopefully tremendous interest in antisense therapeutics for clinical purposes. Single-stranded synthetic antisense oligonucleotides (As-ODNs) with monomers of chemically modified 18-21 deoxynucleotides complement the mRNA sequence in target gene. The target gene expression can be blocked because of created cleavage or disability of the mRNA by binding the As-ODNs to cognate mRNA sequences via sequence-specific hybridization. The idea of antisense therapy has become particular concerning that any sequence longer than a minimal number of nucleotides (17 for DNA and 13 for RNA) can be observed only once within the human genome. The mRNA is omnipresent more probably to manipulate compared to DNA, which results in multiple in vitro and in vivo applications for As-ODNs in the field of regulatory mechanisms of biological processes, cancer, viral infections and hereditary impairments. Although, there are uncertain clinical outcomes on the ability of this approach in treatment procedures despite achieving promising findings based on previous investigations. Accordingly, the efficacy, off-target effects, delivery are issues that should be investigated to obtain satisfactory results. In this review, we will explain the mechanism of action of As-ODNs and various types of modifications and their therapeutic purposes.

SNPs from BCHE and DRD3 genes associated to cocaine abuse amongst violent individuals from Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Violence and drug abuse are highly destructive phenomena found world-wide, especially in Brazil. They seem to rise proportionally to one another and possibly related. Additionally, genetics may also play a role in drug abuse. This study has focused on identifying the use of cocaine within postmortem cases arriving at the Institute of Legal Medicine of Sao Paulo as well as the presence of certain single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to better understand one's susceptibility to abuse the drug. Both hair and blood samples have been extracted through a simple methanol overnight incubation or a rapid dilute-and-shoot method, respectively. The samples were then analyzed using an UPLC-ESI-MS/MS and genotyped through RT-PCR. Statistical analyses were performed via SPSS software. From 105 postmortem cases, 53% and 51% of the cases shown to be positive for cocaine in hair and blood, respectively. Genetic wise, a significant difference has been observed for SNP rs4263329 from the BCHE gene with higher frequencies of the genotypes A/G and G/G seen in cocaine users (OR=8.91; 95%CI=1.58-50.21; p=0.01). Likewise, also SNP rs6280 from the DRD3 gene presented a significant association, with both genotypes T/C and C/C being more frequent in users (OR=4.96; 95% CI=1.07-23.02; p=0.04). To conclude, a rather high proportion of cocaine has been found, which may suggest a connotation between the use of the drug and risky/violent behaviors. Additionally, significant associations were also found within two SNPs related to cocaine use, however, due to several inherent limitations, these must be confirmed.

Oxidative Stress and Analysis of Selected SNPs of ACHE (rs 2571598), BCHE (rs 3495), CAT (rs 7943316), SIRT1 (rs 10823108), GSTP1 (rs 1695), and Gene GSTM1, GSTT1 in Chronic Organophosphates Exposed Groups from Cameroon and Pakistan.

The detrimental effects of organophosphates (OPs) on human health are thought to be of systemic, i.e., irreversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) at nerve synapses. However, several studies have shown that AChE inhibition alone cannot explain all the toxicological manifestations in prolonged exposure to OPs. The present study aimed to assess the status of antioxidants malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH) (reduced), catalase, and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) in chronic OP-exposed groups from Cameroon and Pakistan. Molecular analysis of genetic polymorphisms (SNPs) of glutathione transferases (GSTM1, GSTP1, GSTT1), catalase gene (CAT, rs7943316), sirtuin 1 gene (SIRT1, rs10823108), acetylcholinesterase gene (ACHE, rs2571598), and butyrylcholinesterase gene (BCHE, rs3495) were screened in the OP-exposed individuals to find the possible causative association with oxidative stress and toxicity. Cholinesterase and antioxidant activities were measured by colorimetric methods using a spectrophotometer. Salting-out method was employed for DNA extraction from blood followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) for molecular analysis. Cholinergic enzymes were significantly decreased in OP-exposed groups. Catalase and SOD were decreased and MDA and FRAP were increased in OP-exposed groups compared to unexposed groups in both groups. GSH was decreased only in Pakistani OPs-exposed group. Molecular analysis of ACHE, BCHE, Catalase, GSTP1, and GSTM1 SNPs revealed a tentative association with their phenotypic expression that is level of antioxidant and cholinergic enzymes. The study concludes that chronic OPs exposure induces oxidative stress which is associated with the related SNP polymorphism. The toxicogenetics of understudied SNPs were examined for the first time to our understanding. The findings may lead to a newer area of investigation on OPs induced health issues and toxicogenetics.

Identification of Candidate Risk Factor Genes for Human Idelalisib Toxicity Using a Collaborative Cross Approach.

Idelalisib is a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor highly selective for the delta isoform that has shown good efficacy in treating chronic lymphocytic leukemia and follicular lymphoma. In clinical trials, however, idelalisib was associated with rare, but potentially serious liver and lung toxicities. In this study, we used the Collaborative Cross (CC) mouse population to identify genetic factors associated with the drug response that may inform risk management strategies for idelalisib in humans. Eight male mice (4 matched pairs) from 50 CC lines were treated once daily for 14 days by oral gavage with either vehicle or idelalisib at a dose selected to achieve clinically relevant peak plasma concentrations (150 mg/kg/day). The drug was well tolerated across all CC lines, and there were no observations of overt liver injury. Differences across CC lines were seen in drug concentration in plasma samples collected at the approximate Tmax on study Days 1, 7, and 14. There were also small but statistically significant treatment-induced alterations in plasma total bile acids and microRNA-122, and these may indicate early hepatocellular stress required for immune-mediated hepatotoxicity in humans. Idelalisib treatment further induced significant elevations in the total cell count of terminal bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, which may be analogous to pneumonitis observed in the clinic. Genetic mapping identified loci associated with interim plasma idelalisib concentration and the other 3 treatment-related endpoints. Thirteen priority candidate quantitative trait genes identified in CC mice may now guide interrogation of risk factors for adverse drug responses associated with idelalisib in humans.

Sex Differences in Neurotoxicogenetics.

A major development in biomedical research is the recognition that the sex of an individual plays a key role in susceptibility, treatment, and outcomes of most diseases. In this contribution, we present evidence that sex is also important in the toxicity of many environmental toxicants and contributes to the effect of genetics. Thus, individual differences in response to toxicants includes genetic makeup, the environment and sex; in fact, sex differences may be considered a part of genetic constitution. In this review, we present evidence for sex contribution to susceptibility for a number of toxicants.

Investigation on the relationship between violent death, cocaine abuse and single nucleotide polymorphisms / Estudo da relação entre morte violenta, uso de cocaína e polimorfismos de nucleotídeo único

Violence is a dreadful phenomenon spread throughout the world, resulting in unfortunate events that can ultimately cause death. It is known that some countries play a much worrying role in this scenario than others. Brazil is one of them. The present study has focused on identifying the use of cocaine within 105 postmortem cases arriving at the Institute of Legal Medicine of São Paulo (IML-SP) through analytic toxicological methods and latter applying genetic testing to see whether the presence of certain single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) is more predominant within users rather than non-users, which would help to better understand one's susceptibility to abuse the drug. Both blood and hair samples have been analysed through ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS) in order to distinguish between recent or chronic cocaine use among violent individuals whose violence has ultimately leaded to their death. Two dilute-and-shoot methods have been validated and used for this purpose, and the final residue was analysed through the UPLC-ESIMS/ MS system. From the 105 postmortem cases, a rather high proportion of cocaine and its metabolites was found. A chronic use of the drug was denoted in 53% of the cases, which were positive for cocaine and benzoylecgonine, followed by 43% for norcocaine, 40% for cocaethylene and 13% for anhydroecgonine methyl ester, in hair. As for blood, reflecting the use of cocaine prior to death, 51% of the cases have shown to be positive for benzoylecgonine, followed by 41% for cocaine, 23% for cocaethylene and 20% for norcocaine. These findings suggest a probable association between the use of the drug and risky/violent behaviours. Genetic wise, a significant difference has been observed for SNP rs4263329 from the BCHE gene in its dominant model, with higher frequencies of the genotypes A/G and G/G seen in cocaine users rather than non-users (OR=8.91; 95%CI=1.58-50.21; ρ=0.01). Likewise, also SNP rs6280 from the DRD3> gene presented a significant association in both its additive and dominant model, suggesting that the C allele may be playing a role in cocaine use as both genotypes T/C and C/C were significantly more frequent in users than non-users. This association was not lost when adjusted for covariants using logistic regression (OR=4.96; 95%CI=1.07; ρ=0.04). Finally, a statistically significant association (ρ = 0.003) was also encountered among individuals with both A/G and G/G genotypes within SNP rs4263329 and the use of cocaine HCl (f(A/G+G/G)=44.7%) versus crack-cocaine (f(A/G+G/G)=7.7%) and nonusers (f(A/G+G/G)=16.2%). In conclusion, this study has found significant associations within two SNPs related to cocaine use, however, due to several inherent limitations, these must be confirmed by further studies with a higher number of subjects and within a more controlled setting. Definite assumptions may not be made at this point and future researches are to be conducted

A violência é um fenômeno aterrador espalhado por todo o mundo, resultando em eventos que podem, em última instância, causar a morte. Sabe-se que, em alguns países esse cenário é mais preocupante que em outros. O Brasil é um deles. O presente estudo teve como objetivo identificar o uso de cocaína em 105 casos postmortem provenientes do Instituto de Medicina Legal de São Paulo (IML-SP) por meio de métodos toxicológicos analíticos e posterior aplicação de testes genéticos para verificar se a presença de determinados polimorfismos de nucleotídeo único (SNPs) é mais predominante dentro dos usuários do que dos não usuários, o que explicaria uma possível suscetibilidade de um indivíduo ao abuso da droga. Amostras de sangue e cabelo foram analisadas através de cromatografia líquida de ultra-eficiência acoplada a espectrometria de massas e ionização por electrospray (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS) para distinguir entre uso recente ou crônico de cocaína entre indivíduos violentos cuja violência levou à sua morte. Para tal, dois métodos de extração baseados na técnica de "dilute-and-shoot" foram validados e utilizados para esse fim, e o resíduo final foi analisado através de um sistema UPLC-ESI-MS/MS. Dos 105 casos postmortem, foi encontrada uma proporção significativa de cocaína e seus produtos de biotransformação. O uso crônico da droga foi denotado em 53% dos casos, sendo estes positivos para cocaína e benzoilecgonina, seguidos de 43% para norcocaína, 40% para cocaetileno e 13% para anidroecgonina metil éster, no cabelo. Quanto ao sangue, refletindo o uso de cocaína antes da morte, 51% dos casos mostraram-se positivos para benzoilecgonina, seguido de 41% para cocaína, 23% para cocaetileno e 20% para norcocaína. Esses dados corroboram a hipótese provável da relação entre o uso da droga e comportamentos de risco/violentos. Quanto à genética, uma diferença significativa foi observada para o SNP rs4263329 do gene BCHE em seu modelo dominante, com maiores frequências dos genótipos A/G e G/G vistos em usuários de cocaína ao contrário de não usuários (OR=8,91; 95%IC=1,58-50,21; ρ=0,01). Da mesma forma, também o SNP rs6280 do gene DRD3 apresentou uma associação significativa tanto no seu modelo aditivo quanto dominante, sugerindo que o alelo C pode estar desempenhando um papel no uso de cocaína, pois ambos os genótipos T/C e C/C foram significativamente mais frequentes nos usuários do que não usuários. Essa associação não foi perdida quando ajustada para co-variáveis usando regressão logística (OR=4,96; 95%IC=1,07; ρ=0,04). Finalmente, uma associação estatisticamente significativa (ρ=0,003) também foi encontrada entre indivíduos com ambos os genótipos A/G e G/G dentro do SNP rs4263329 e o uso de cocaína HCl (f(A/G + G/G)=44,7%) versus crack (f(A/G + G/G)=7,7%) e não usuários (f(A/G + G/G)=16,2%). Em conclusão, este estudo encontrou associações significativas em dois SNPs relacionados ao uso de cocaína, no entanto, devido a várias limitações inerentes, estas devem ser confirmadas por mais estudos com um maior número de indivíduos e dentro de um cenário mais controlado. Hipóteses definitivas não poderão ser feitas neste momento e futuras pesquisas devem ser conduzidas

Kernel Multitask Regression for Toxicogenetics.

The development of high-throughput in vitro assays to study quantitatively the toxicity of chemical compounds on genetically characterized human-derived cell lines paves the way to predictive toxicogenetics, where one would be able to predict the toxicity of any particular compound on any particular individual. In this paper we present a machine learning-based approach for that purpose, kernel multitask regression (KMR), which combines chemical characterizations of molecular compounds with genetic and transcriptomic characterizations of cell lines to predict the toxicity of a given compound on a given cell line. We demonstrate the relevance of the method on the recent DREAM8 Toxicogenetics challenge, where it ranked among the best state-of-the-art models, and discuss the importance of choosing good descriptors for cell lines and chemicals.

Transcriptional responses of zebrafish to complex metal mixtures in laboratory studies overestimates the responses observed with environmental water.

Metals released into the environment continue to be of concern for human health. However, risk assessment of metal exposure is often based on total metal levels and usually does not take bioavailability data, metal speciation or matrix effects into consideration. The continued development of biological endpoint analyses are therefore of high importance for improved eco-toxicological risk analyses. While there is an on-going debate concerning synergistic or additive effects of low-level mixed exposures there is little environmental data confirming the observations obtained from laboratory experiments. In the present study we utilized qRT-PCR analysis to identify key metal response genes to develop a method for biomonitoring and risk-assessment of metal pollution. The gene expression patterns were determined for juvenile zebrafish exposed to waters from sites down-stream of a closed mining operation. Genes representing different physiological processes including stress response, inflammation, apoptosis, drug metabolism, ion channels and receptors, and genotoxicity were analyzed. The gene expression patterns of zebrafish exposed to laboratory prepared metal mixes were compared to the patterns obtained with fish exposed to the environmental samples with the same metal composition and concentrations. Exposure to environmental samples resulted in fewer alterations in gene expression compared to laboratory mixes. A biotic ligand model (BLM) was used to approximate the bioavailability of the metals in the environmental setting. However, the BLM results were not in agreement with the experimental data, suggesting that the BLM may be overestimating the risk in the environment. The present study therefore supports the inclusion of site-specific biological analyses to complement the present chemical based assays used for environmental risk-assessment.

Linkage Analysis of Urine Arsenic Species Patterns in the Strong Heart Family Study.

Arsenic toxicokinetics are important for disease risks in exposed populations, but genetic determinants are not fully understood. We examined urine arsenic species patterns measured by HPLC-ICPMS among 2189 Strong Heart Study participants 18 years of age and older with data on ~400 genome-wide microsatellite markers spaced ~10 cM and arsenic speciation (683 participants from Arizona, 684 from Oklahoma, and 822 from North and South Dakota). We logit-transformed % arsenic species (% inorganic arsenic, %MMA, and %DMA) and also conducted principal component analyses of the logit % arsenic species. We used inverse-normalized residuals from multivariable-adjusted polygenic heritability analysis for multipoint variance components linkage analysis. We also examined the contribution of polymorphisms in the arsenic metabolism gene AS3MT via conditional linkage analysis. We localized a quantitative trait locus (QTL) on chromosome 10 (LOD 4.12 for %MMA, 4.65 for %DMA, and 4.84 for the first principal component of logit % arsenic species). This peak was partially but not fully explained by measured AS3MT variants. We also localized a QTL for the second principal component of logit % arsenic species on chromosome 5 (LOD 4.21) that was not evident from considering % arsenic species individually. Some other loci were suggestive or significant for 1 geographical area but not overall across all areas, indicating possible locus heterogeneity. This genome-wide linkage scan suggests genetic determinants of arsenic toxicokinetics to be identified by future fine-mapping, and illustrates the utility of principal component analysis as a novel approach that considers % arsenic species jointly.

CYP2D6 genetic polymorphisms and their relevance for poisoning due to amfetamines, opioid analgesics and antidepressants.

INTRODUCTION: Cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) is a member of the cytochrome P450 (CYP) superfamily involved in the biotransformation of drugs and substances of abuse encountered in clinical toxicology. Among the CYP superfamily, the CYP2D6 gene is considered as the most polymorphic as more than 105 different alleles have been identified so far. CYP2D6 genetic polymorphisms have the potential to affect the toxicity of their substrates. OBJECTIVE: This review will focus specifically on CYP2D6 genetic polymorphisms and their relevance for poisoning due to amfetamines, opioid analgesics and antidepressants in humans. METHODS: PubMed (up to August 2013) was searched with the following selection criteria: 'CYP2D6 AND (toxicology OR poisoning OR intoxication OR overdose)'. Of the 454 citations retrieved, only 46 papers dealt with the impact of CYP2D6 polymorphisms on poisoning due to amfetamines, opioid analgesics and antidepressants. amfetamines. While some in vitro studies suggest that CYP2D6-mediated metabolites of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamfetamine (MDMA) are substantially more cytotoxic compared with unchanged MDMA, it is not yet confirmed in human cases of MDMA intoxication that extensive/ultra-rapid CYP2D6 metabolisers could be at higher risk. This would also apply to methamfetamine exposure and the related cardiac and central nervous system toxicity. Opioid analgesics. CYP2D6 ultra-rapid metabolisers are more likely to experience the adverse effects of codeine and tramadol. Opioid analgesics that do not rely on CYP2D6 for therapeutic activity, such as morphine and hydromorphone, may therefore be a better alternative to codeine and tramadol, with the limitation that these drugs have their own set of adverse reactions. Antidepressants. CYP2D6 poor metabolisers are generally more prone to adverse effects. Among them, the four drugs with the highest level of evidence are amitriptyline, nortriptyline, venlafaxine and fluoxetine. Further data are needed, however, for doxepin and paroxetine, while citalopram adverse effects seem definitely less influenced by CYP2D6 genetic polymorphisms. CONCLUSIONS: Either poor or extensive/ultra-rapid CYP2D6 metabolisers may be exposed to toxic effects of amfetamines, opioid analgesics and antidepressants. In these three categories, the level of evidence is substance dependent, with differences within the same pharmacological class.

Approaches and perspectives to toxicogenetics and toxicogenomics / Aproximaciones y perspectivas en toxicogenética y toxicogenómica

Toxicology is one of the scientific disciplines that has most evolved in recent years due to scientific and technological advances that have created a deeper understanding of the genetic and molecular basis for appreciative variability in toxic response from one person to another. The application of this knowledge in toxicology is known as toxicogenetics and toxicogenomics. The latter is the discipline that studies the genomic response of organisms exposed to chemical agents, including drugs, environmental pollutants, food additives, and other commonly used chemical products. The use of emerging omic technologies, such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics and bioinformatics techniques, permits the analysis of many variants of genes simultaneously in an organism exposed to toxic agents in order to search for genes susceptible to damage, to detect patterns and mechanisms of toxicity, and determine specific profiles of gene expression that give origin to biomarkers of exposure and risk. This constitutes predictive toxicology.

La toxicología es una de las disciplinas científicas que más ha evolucionado en los últimos años; esto se ha dado gracias a los avances científicos y tecnológicos que han generado un conocimiento cada vez más profundo de las bases genéticas y moleculares de la variabilidad en la respuesta tóxica de unas personas a otras. La aplicación de estos conocimientos a la toxicología se conoce como toxicogenética y toxicogenómica; esta última es la disciplina que estudia la respuesta genómica de los organismos expuestos a agentes químicos, dentro de los que se incluyen fármacos, contaminantes ambientales, aditivos alimentarios y otros productos químicos de uso común. Dichos estudios se adelantan mediante el empleo de las tecnologías ómicas emergentes, como genómica, trascriptómica, proteómica, metabolómica y las técnicas bioinformáticas, las cuales permiten analizar múltiples variantes de genes simultáneamente de un organismo expuesto a agentes tóxicos, con el propósito de buscar los relacionados con susceptibilidad al daño, detectar de patrones y mecanismos de toxicidad, determinar moléculas endógenas susceptibles al ataque de agentes tóxicos y determinar perfiles específicos de expresión de genes que pueden originar biomarcadores de exposición y riesgo, constituyendo la toxicología predictiva.

The perplexing paradox of paraquat: the case for host-based susceptibility and postulated neurodegenerative effects.

Paraquat is an herbicide used extensively in agriculture and has also been proposed to be a risk factor for Parkinson's disease. To date, experimental, clinical, and epidemiological data on paraquat neurotoxicity have been equivocal. In this short review, we discuss some technical and biological mechanisms that contribute to inconsistencies regarding paraquat neurotoxicity. We hypothesize that individual genetic variations in susceptibility generate major differences in neurotoxic risk and functional outcome. Identifying these heritable sources of variation in host susceptibility, and their role in complex gene-environment interactions, is crucial to identify risk biomarkers and to devise better prevention and treatment for those exposed to paraquat and other potential neurotoxicants.

Toxicogenetics of lopinavir/ritonavir in HIV-infected European patients.

AIMS: We present a genetic association study in 106 European HIV-infected individuals aimed at identifying and confirming polymorphisms that have a significant influence on toxicity derived from treatment with lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/r). PATIENTS & METHODS: Genotyping was performed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight and KASPar® (KBiosciences, Hoddesdon, UK); LPV/r plasma concentrations were quantified using HPLC with an UV detection system and the pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated using Bayesian algorithms. Genetic association analysis was performed with PASW Statistics 18 (SPSS Inc., IL, USA) and R for Windows (Microsoft, WA, USA). RESULTS: Suggestive relationships have been established between lipid plasma levels and total bilirubin and SNPs in CETP, MCP1, ABCC2, LEP and SLCO1B3 genes and between diarrhea and SNPs in IL6 gene. CONCLUSION: Replication analysis should confirm the novel results obtained in this study prior to its application in the clinical practice to achieve a safer LPV/r-based combined antiretroviral therapy.